Shabtis in Croatian Private Collections and Museums

By Mladen Tomorad. Published on Egyptological, 30th June 2011, Journal Edition 1

Abstract

Approximately 5,000 Egyptian artefacts are housed in the more than twenty museum and known private collections in Croatia (4,042 in museums and circa 1,000 in private collections) dating from the 4^th millennium BC to AD 641.

There are 375 shabtis in nine museums and the known private collections in Croatia. Most  (346) came from the Pharaonic periods of Ancient Egypt, but an additional 26 shabtis and 3 pseudoshabtis were unearthed during excavations in the territory of the Roman provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia (today in Croatia). These shabtis were usually connected with the diffusion of the Egyptian cults during Graeco-Roman periods (c. 4^th century BC to the 3^rd century AD).  The largest collection of shabtis is held in the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb (312). These shabtis were collected over a long period of time, from 1865 to today, and from various sources, but  most are of unknown provenance. My analysis showed that all shabtis are genuine. They were crafted between the Middle Kingdom (AMZ, inv. no. E-310) and the 3^rd c. AD. The following analysis of the shabtis showed that almost all known types and forms of shabtis can be found in Croatian collections.

Introduction: Egyptian artefacts in Croatia

Approximately 5,000 Egyptian artefacts are housed in Croatian museums and private collections. They can be dated from the 4^th millennium BC to AD 641. Most (4,042) of these objects are in museum collections, but approximately 1,000 are in private collections (Tomorad 2005).

Egyptian artefacts have mainly found their way to Croatia in two ways:

• material acquired from abroad through intermediates or donations (mostly during 19^th century and first half of 20^th century) (c. 4.600 artefacts); and
• material associated with the Egyptian cults found in the territory of Croatia (c. 400 artefacts) which has been acquired through archaeological excavations, and originally brought to Croatia mostly during antiquity.

For most of these artefacts we do not know the exact provenance. They were sold to private collectors by various second-hand antiquity dealers or intermediaries, mostly during the 19^th century. Today museum inventory books can only tell us how these objects came to the museums, the name of the donor and only rarely the exact provenance of the artefact (usually when they were excavated by some amateur diggers). For most of the artefacts in the Croatian museums we can only guess the exact location where they were found (Tomorad 2005, p. 2).

Shabtis

The shabti (e.g. wšbty) is a figure found in the Egyptian tombs from the Middle Kingdom onwards, very often in large numbers in wooden boxes, sarcophagi, and coffins or laid along the floor. The shabti is presented in the form of a mummified person bearing various agricultural implements (Schnieder 1977). During the New Kingdom shabtis were placed in tombs in very large numbers.  A perfectly equipped tomb might hold 401 shabtis: 365 workers (one for each day of the year); and 36 overseers – one for every ten workers (Tomorad 2000, p. 5).

There are three different variations of Egyptian words for shabti. The first is shabti with unknown etymology; the second is shawabti; and by the time of the Late Period the common term was ushabti. All these terms have their root in the Egyptian word wšb – meaning answerer (Schneider 1977; Shaw & Nicholson 1995, s. v. shabti, Stewart 1995, p. 13).

The shabti was intended to serve as a magical replacement should the deceased be called upon to perform tasks in the Netherworld (Budge 1893, pp. 171, 211-215; Schneider 1977; Shaw & Nicholson 1995, s. v. shabti; Stewart 1995, p. 9). The Egyptians believed that when they died they had to perform manual labour for Osiris, the king of the dead, the same as they did during their lives for the pharaoh, the king of the living. Common Egyptians had to do various jobs for the king during the floods  (for example, building and cleaning irrigation systems, carrying out agricultural works on the fields and other essential tasks). The nobility always had someone else to do their tasks, but in the Netherworld every Egyptian had to perform these works. Therefore, the main role for the shabti was to substitute for the deceased and perform labours in the land of the dead. The most common shabti tasks were filling furrows with water, ploughing the fields and carrying sand. (Budge 1893, p. 172)

Shabtis bore a variety of inscription texts. Usually they bore the name of the deceased, an offering formulae, dedications and spells. The most common shabti spell, with its agricultural references, comes from text known in the Coffin Texts (De Buck 1935, Spell 472), which later became the 6^th chapter of the Egyptian Book of the Dead (Budge 1895). Shabtis from the New Kingdom onwards mainly bear whole or part of formulae taken from the Book of the Dead:

Illumine the Osiris Any, whose word is truth. Hail, Shabti figure! If the Osiris Ani be decreed to do any of the work which is to be done in Khert-Neter, let everything which standeth in the way be removed from him – whether it be to plough the fields, or to fill the channels with water, or to carry sand from (the East to the West). The Shabti figure replieth: I will do it, verily I am here (when) thou callest. (Budge 1895, p. 629)

From the New Kingdom the formula sḥḏ Wsir ḥm-nṯr was frequently written on them (Tomorad 2006b, p. 283).

Shabtis appeared for the first time during the late Old Kingdom or early First Intermediate Period (according to G. Mariette the first form of shabtis and its inscriptions appeared during the 6^th Dynasty. Mariette 1869-1880, vol. I, p. 48). During that time wooden models of servants – for example, agricultural workers, bakers, brewers, butchers – were placed in the tombs. (Stewart 1995, p. 8).  Their purpose was to answer in the name of ba when the gods called the deceased to the court. During the Middle Kingdom the ka was shown as the mummy. By the New Kingdom the ka was united with shabti which bore the name of the deceased (Budge 1893; Schneider 1977; Shaw & Nicholson 1995, s. v. shabti).

Shabtis were made of various stones including alabaster, wood, clay, metal and coloured (green, blue, brown or red) faience. (Budge 1893, p. 212; Petrie 1909, p. 113; Tomorad 2004, p. 93). During the 13^th Dynasty shabtis were made of calcareous stone, granite or wood, presented with the hands crossed over the breast, but without any agricultural implements, with the name and titles of the deceased. Glazed faience shabtis appeared at the beginning of the New Kingdom, and they were used until the end of Saite period. The iconography of shabtis changed during the 18^th Dynasty when they began to carry various agricultural implements (for example, hoe, mattock and basket). (Budge 1893, p. 212; Tomorad 2004, p. 93). During the 19^th Dynasty the dress of shabtis changed, and since then shabtis are usually shown wearing the garments which the deceased wore during their lifetime. (Budge 1893, p. 212; Tomorad 2004, p. 93).  During the 26^th Dynasty shabtis stood on a square pedestal and had a rectangular upright plinth on the back. They were usually made in moulds and coloured with light blue and green pigments or were glazed. From the end of the Saite period they were made with less care and had short inscriptions. By the end of the Ptolemaic period shabtis became small and were usually without inscriptions (Tomorad 2004, p. 93).

 

Schneider Typology of Shabtis

 

Hans B. Schneider devised today’s most commonly used typology of shabtis which  he published in his three volume book Shabtis – An Introduction to the History of Ancient Egyptian Funerary Statuettes with a Catalogue of the Collection in the National Museum of Antiquities at Leiden in 1977 in limited number of copies. Today this relevant source for researchers, museum curators and Egyptologists is our of print and hard to find. The 1^st volume (366 pages) contains excellent descriptions of the shabtis and a well written study of the 6^th Chapter of the Book of the Dead which is often written on shabti figures. The 2^nd volume (254 pages) contains valuable descriptions of the few hundreds of shabtis in the museum in Leiden. The 3^rd volume contains plates of the shabtis. His typology which was introduced in this work was later followed by many other scholars and has became fundamental for all new interpretations and works about shabtis.

The Schneider typology divided shabtis according to period, materials and iconography with a type code compromising: class, wig, hand positions, implements, bags and baskets, attributes, text position and version of the shabti spells. Shabtis were divided into 12 classes.

Table 1: Schneider shabti typography

Class	Form	Period
Class I	Human form	9th to 11th Dynasties
Class II	Mummiform	11th to 13th Dynasties
Class III	Mummiform	12 and 13th Dynasties
Class IV	Stick-formed	17th and 18th Dynasties
Class V	Mummiform	18th to 20th Dynasties
Class VI	Daily life dress	19th and 20th Dynasties
Class VII	Unconventional forms	18th and 19th Dynasties
Class VIII	Mummiform	21st to 23rd Dynasties
Class IX	Daily life dress	21st to 23rd Dynasties
Class X	Mummiform	25th and 26th Dynasties
Class XI	Mummiform with back pillar	26th to Ptolemaic Dynasties
Class XII	Unconventional forms	26th to Ptolemaic Dynasties

Each of the main elements like wings, hands positions, bags and baskets, amulets and attributes and text position were divided into many subdivisions and subtypes which help scholars to interpret and date shabtis in various museum and private collections. This is the most comprehensive attempt to catalogue shabtis, which is the main reason why the Schneider typology is so fundamental and superior to all other works about shabtis in the author’s opinion.   Several other typologies exist and they are used by some scholars and Egyptologists, notably typographies published by L. Speleers (1923), W. M. F. Petrie (1935), and  J. F. Aubert (1974).

Harry M. Stewart wrote another very useful book which helps in various aspects of the analysis of shabti figures. Entitled Egyptian Shabtis it was published as part of the Shire Egyptology series in 1995. The most valuable part of this small publication is that about forms, decoration and the manufacture of these statuettes (Stewart 1995, pp. 33-46) which also contains a well written study of the materials from which shabtis were made (Stewart 1995, pp. 40-46).

Shabtis in Egyptian collections in Croatia

As previously stated, there are 375 shabtis in the museums and known private collections of Croatia.

There are 312 shabtis in the Egyptian collection of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb (IBED AMZ; MIB AMZ). Most of them (291) came from Egypt; only eight of them were unearthed in Croatia. In the Inventory of the Egyptian collection of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb they are listed as funeral statuettes of Osiris.

Nine shabtis from excavations in Dalmatia (in the Middle Dalmatia, Solin and islands) are in the collection of the Archaeological Museum in Split (inv. nos.: G 1623-1626, B 212-216). Four shabtis from Egypt are housed in the Archaeology Museum of Istra in Pula (inv. nos.: P 7580, P 30331-30333).  The Archaeological Museum in Dubrovnik has 25 shabtis, originally from Egypt. (inv. nos. 473, 504, 506-508, 550, 552-564, 566-567, 595, 3805-3807)

Only a aew shabtis are housed in other museums: one from Egypt is in the Museum Mimara in Zagreb (inv. n. ATM 232); one is in the Museum of Slavonia in Osijek (inv. n. 5243 found in Osijek); four from Egypt are in the collection of Benko Horvat in the Museum of Contemporary Art in Zagreb (inv. nos.: 360-362);  two from Čitluk (Bosnia and Herzegovina) are  in the Franciscan monastery in Sinj; and four are in the  Monastery of Saint Euphemia in Kampor on the island of Rab. At least seven shabtis are housed in private collections: one shabti is in the possession of A. Domančić on the island of Hvar; six are housed at Tereza Marović (ex-private collection Carrara-Bratanić); and one shabti, unearthed during the archaeological excavations in 1996/1997 in Kazale near Filipana in Istra, is now in the private possession of Mr. Lik in Filipani.

Table 2: Shabtis in museum and private collections in Croatia

Collection	Provenance	Period	Inv. No.	Number
Archaeological Museum, Zagreb	Various	Middle Kingdom-Roman period	For more information see Table 2	312
Museum Mimara, Zagreb	Unknown	late Middle Kingdom	ATM 232	1
Archaeological Museum, Dubrovnik	Unknown	not analysed	473, 504, 506, 507, 508, 550, 552, 553, 554, 555, 556, 557, 558, 559, 560, 561, 562, 563, 564, 566, 567, 595, 3805, 3806, 3807	25
Archaeological Museum of Istria, Pula	Unknown	Graeco-Roman Period	P7580, P30331-30333	4
Archaeological Museum, Split	Middle Dalmatia	Graeco-Roman Period	G1623, G1624, G1626, B212-216	8
Archaeological Museum, Split	Hvar	Graeco-Roman Period	G1625	1
Museum of Slavonia, Osijek	Mursa (Osijek)	Graeco-Roman Period	5243	1
Museum of Contemporary Art, Zagreb	Alexandria	Graeco-Roman Period	360	3
St. Euphemia monastery, Kampor – Rab	Unknown	Not analysed	Without inventory numbers	4
Franciscan monastery, Sinj	Čitluk	Graeco-Roman Period	Without inventory numbers	2
A. Domančić, Hvar	Middle Dalmatia	Graeco-Roman Period	Without inventory numbers	7
Tereza Marović, Split	Middle Dalmatia	Graeco-Roman Period	Without inventory numbers	6
Lik, Filipani	Kazale, Istria	Not analysed	Without inventory number	1
Total				375

Shabtis from the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, Croatia

 

History of the Collection

 

The largest collection of shabtis (312 artefacts) is in the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. Most came from the private collection of  Austrian Imperial Lieutenant General Baron Franz von Koller (born Munich 27 November 1767 – died Naples 22 July 1826) (Tomorad 2003, p. 19) which was bought for the Národni Museum in Zagreb in 1868 (t. 2).  It is known that he bought the collection while on military service in Naples (1815, 1821-1826) from the Roman antiquity seller Lancius, who had bought the items from the Greek dealer Papiandropolus. The collection was first housed in von Koller Castle in Obrzistov, and later in Prague. The original provenance and locations where the shabtis were excavated have not been recorded (Tomorad 2003, p. 19).

Other shabtis came from various private collections.  They were donated or purchased for the Národni Museum or, after 1862, the Archaeological Museum(Table 2) (IBED AMZ; MIB AMZ; Tomorad 2005). Two of them are not recorded in the Inventory book of the Egyptological Department and are only mentioned in the Main inventory book of Archaeological Museum in Zagreb (inv. nos. 348, 358).

Table 3: Shabtis in Archaeological Museum in Zagreb

Donator / Purchase	Profession / Place	Year	Provenance	Inventory Number(s)	Total Number
Mijat Sabljar	Museum curator/Zagreb	1865?	Egypt	E448	1
Franjo Jordan	Merchant/Cairo	1866	Egypt	E386, E453, E495, E511	4
Franz von Koller	Baron/Habsburg Monarchy	1868	Egypt	E256-271, E273-312, E-317-365, E-367-381, E-383-385, E-387-431, E433-441, E-443-447, E-449-452, E-454-463, E-465-472, E-474-490, E-492-494, E-496-510, E-512-560, E-566	285
Ferdo (Ferdinand) Pleše	Priest/Fužane	1871	Suez, Egypt	E333	1
Lanza collection	Split	1874	Salona, Croatia	E442, E561-E565	6
Milan Tompa	Unknown	1886	Egypt	E366	1
Fran Gundrum-Oriovčanin	Doctor/Križevci	1898	Egypt	E491	1
M. Valjato	Unknown/Kraljevica	1900	Egypt	E473	1
Gustav Koritić	Government secretary/unknown	1905	Egypt,	E328	1
Finkh	Pharmacist/Zagreb	?	Egypt	E272	1
Ivan Bojničić	doctor/unknown	?	Egypt	E432	1
The Gymnasium	Senj	?	Egypt	E464	1
Petar Karlić	doctor/Zadar	1912	Nin, Croatia	E675, E676	2
Vesna Magdić	unknown/Zagreb	1954	Ostrožac, Bosnia	MIB AMZ 348	1
Kamila Radovan	unknown/Zagreb	1957	unknown	MIB AMZ 358	1
Pavletić	unknown	2000	Egypt	E773, E774, E779, E781	4
Total number					312

 

 

The first catalogue of the Egyptian collection of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb was compiled by Heinrich Brugsch in 1869. He examined the collection and made some notes which were later used by Šime Ljubić, curator and director of the Národni Museum. Ljubić wrote the first notes about the Egyptian collection of the Národni Museum in Viestnik narodnoga zemaljskoga muzeja u Zagrebu vol. I (Ljubić 1871).  He referred to shabtis as “funeral statuettes of Osiris”. In 1889 Ljubić published the first catalogue of the Egyptian collection (Ljubić 1889) and again described them as “Statuettes of Osiris with or without inscription” (Ljubić 1889, pp. 8-10).  At that time they were displayed in closet number 4 in the Egyptian room (Ljubić 1889, p. 10).

During the 1960s, Janine Monnet Saleh published her doctoral thesis “Les antiquités égyptiennes de Zagreb. Catalogue raisonné des antiquités égyptiennes conservées au Musée Archéologique de Zagreb en Yougoslavie” (Monnet Saleh 1970). Among other artefacts she examined the shabtis and catalogued them. Sadly her work has numerous mistakes: many artefacts were not properly examined and analysed (inlcuding incorrect dimensions, materials and dating), or were wrongly interpreted. She divided the shabtis as five fundamental types:

“Type A – Depicted as living people in clothing with a triangular shape descending over the knees, with medium long sleeves, and wigs composed of three parts;

Type B – The most common type. The figurines are mummy shaped. Three-part wigs, with the third part extending onto the back;

Type C – The locks of hair on the wig are depicted with vertical lines. Otherwise they are identical to type B.

Type D – The shabtis have no tools in their hands.

Type E – In the shape of a mummy with a pedestal and a dorsal column on the back. They have false beards, tools in their hands, and a rope thrown across their shoulders.” (Monnet Saleh 1970, p. 127). Her typology was later used by Igor Uranić in his catalogue. (Uranić 2007, p. 135)

In 1979, Mihael Gorenc published the first guide to the Egyptian collection entitled “Egipat” (Gorenc 1979). Shabtis were mentioned in only a few sentences and with just general information about their use in Ancient Egypt. (Gorenc 1979, p. 32)

The next work which mentioned shabtis was published in 1996. Entitled  “Muzeopis … 1846-1996” it was dedicated to the celebration of the 150^th anniversary of the Národni Museum in Zagreb.  Igor Uranić wrote a small introduction to the collection and observed that shabtis are the most numerous type of artefact in the museum’s collection (Uranić 1996, p. 90). In the small catalogue part of “Muzeopis” he analysed the shabti of Mer-Rut-Ahmose (inv. no. 431) as good example of shabti figures (Uranić 1996, p. 94). In 2005 Uranić published a second guide to the Egyptian collection entitled “Egipatska zbirka – Vodič” in which he mentioned shabtis only within a short evaluation of Egyptian funerary equipment (Uranić 2005, pp. 29) with the example of Uah-ib-re-em-akhet shabti (inv. no. 438) (Uranić 2005, p. 31).

The shabtis that were not purchased from von Koller were first properly described in the Tomorad article “Šauabtiji u Dalmaciji i Panoniji” (Tomorad 2000, pp. 2, 13) and later in his paper “Shabtis from Roman Provinces Dalmatia and Pannonia” (Tomorad 2004., p. 90). In both works only general information was given (donor or purchase and year when it happened, inventory numbers, dimensions).  They were dated  by Tomorad to the Graeco-Roman Period. Later they were fully analysed and interpreted in article “Shabtis from Roman Provinces Dalmatia and Pannonia and their Role in Egyptian Cults during Roman Empire”. (Tomorad 2006b, pp. 296-301, Pl. 82-3, 84-86) In his interpretation, systematization and dating Tomorad used the Schneider typology (Schneider 1977).  As described this is superior to the typoography used in previous works by Monnet Saleh and Uranić.

Finally the shabtis were catalogued by Uranić in the new museum catalogue Aegyptiaca Zagrabiensis (Uranić 2007, pp. 135-188), which also included a few new acquisitions not mentioned in previous publications. It contains: catalogue number, general description about shabti (in some cases without it), type taken from Monnet Saleh catalogue, material, height, inventory number and dating (which in most cases includes only long periods, for example New Kingdom or Late Period etc.).

In 2009, Tomorad re-catalogued  the whole collection of shabtis in the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb according to the Schneider typology.  The work was undertaken as part of his dissertation entitled “Shabtis from Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, Croatia” submitted to the University of Manchester for the Degree of Egyptology in the Faculty of Life Sciences. He analyzed the whole collection of shabtis in  the  Zagreb Archaeological Museum. During this examination all shabtis were dated again and for the first time were systematically described according to the Schnieder typology.

Table 3: Dating of shabtis from Archaeological Museum in Zagreb.

Period	Dynasty	Number of shabtis
Middle Kingdom		1
New Kingdom		65
Third Intermediate Period	21st Dynasty	1
	21st-23rd Dynasty	2
	25th Dynasty	1
Late Period	26th Saite Dynasty	28
	other dynasties	48
Graeco-Roman Period		166
Total		312

Conclusion

There are 375 known shabti in Croatian museums and private collections. Most of them came from the pharaonic periods of Ancient Egypt (346) but a further 26 shabtis and 3 pseudoshabtis were unearthed during excavations on the territory of ex-Roman provinces Dalmatia and Pannonia. These shabtis were usually connected with the diffusion of Egyptian cults during the Graeco-Roman periods (c. 4^th century BC to the 3^rd century AD).

The largest collection of shabtis is held in Zagreb, where the Archaeological museum is the owner of 312 shabtis (table 3) which were collected over a lengthy period from 1865 to nowadays and came from various sources (Table 2). Most are of unknown provenance which makes analysis and dating hard and somewhat uncertain; however analysis by Tomorad showed that the artefacts are all genuine. They were crafted between Middle Kingdom (inv. no. 310) and 3^rd c. AD (t. 3, p. 25).

The analysis of shabtis showed that the collection of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb represents almost all known types and forms of shabtis.  While most of these shabti have no unique artistic value and are similar to thousands of other shabtis that can be seen in various museums, there are several pieces (eg. E-277, E-286, E-289, E3-307, E-309, E-549) which are of particular merit and interest. Most of the shabtis lack any hieroglyphic inscriptions and were mainly made during the Late  or Ptolemaic periods. In some cases, though, names or full shabti spells can be read which permits the identification of the original owner of the shabtis, or even the graves in which the shabtis were placed as part of common funerary equipment.

Abbreviations

AMZ Archaeological Museum in Zagreb.

Cl. Class

IBED AMZ Inventory book of Egyptological Department – Archaeological Museum in Zagreb.

MIB AMZ Main Inventory book, Archaeological Museum in Zagreb.

T. Table

 

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See also The Egyptian Collection of the Archaeological Museum of Zagreb and its Mummies in the Magazine Edition 4, by Porin Šćukanec Rezniček.